The Coast Guard Institute is championing the idea of using handheld computers for online courses. Their goal is to offer high-quality courses to their personnel in a manner that works with the often harsh and constricted environment they work in for long periods of time. Developing an effective instructional strategy for new delivery systems and modes of instruction requires careful planning, and a clear understanding of the learning environment, technical specifications, and desired learning outcomes. This is a plan for a blended solution for a hybrid course using the Dell Axim X30 that incorporates Robert Gagne’s seminal “conditions for learning.”
The Delivery: Handheld Specifications of the Dell Axim X30 (from the Dell.com website)
The Dell Axim TM X30 features a sleek, sophisticated design that packs in features needed for connectivity, productivity and entertainment at an affordable price. Next generation Intel XScale ® processors with WMMX technology provide maximum performance. ( http://www.dell.com )
Because of security issues, Coast Guard and other military users must disable any wireless capabilities, including the Bluetooth options advertised by Dell.
- Equipped with Microsoft ® Windows ® Mobile 2003 Second Edition operating system and familiar applications like Word and Excel
- Powered by the NEW Intel ® XScale TM Processors at 624MHz with WMMX
- Brilliant 3.5″ color TFT display for indoor and outdoor viewing
- Navigation button and scroll dial for easy access to information
- Packed with 64MB SDRAM and 64MB Intel StrataFlash ® ROM
- Integrated 802.11b and Bluetooth wireless technologies
- Integrated Secure Digital / SDIO Now! / MMC card slot provides flexible expansion
- Removable Primary Battery with optional High Capacity Battery
- Built-in microphone and speaker for easy recording on the go
- Light and thin, sleek and stylish design
The Learning Environment: Coast Guard
Accommodations on Coast Guard ships are designed to make maximum use of space. They do not have facilities of a Navy air craft carrier, nor do they have much room to move around in their sleeping quarters.
–The sleeping bunks (”racks”) are very tight. One cannot sit up in bed, and for larger individuals, it may be necessary to get out of bed in order to turn over. Individuals can listen to their portable players (CDs, iPods), watch DVDs on small DVD players, and read the screens from handhelds. There is not sufficient room to open a laptop.
–Students can work on their handhelds and write from the dining area. There is a small dining table, and the crew often sit there after their watch is over. They can drink coffee, eat snacks, work on their handheld, listen to music, and write in notebooks.
–Individuals have a small 2ft x 1 ft wall locker for storage. This should accommodate textbooks. Ideally, courses would have one or two texts.
–If the handheld battery is completely drained, the information stored to the chip will be lost, particularly if it is in Flash memory. Work or instructional activities that needed to be stored and graded later will be lost.
Overview of Gagne
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving.
Gagne is creating a model that builds in scaffolding. By doing so, he creates a hierarchy which pinpoints what needs to be accomplished in order to achieve learning goals. Scaffolding essentially refers to the action of facilitating learning. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Scaffolding occurs after doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
According to Gagne (1992), the following instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes must be present in order for learning to take place.
- gaining attention (reception)
- informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
- stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
- presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
- providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
- eliciting performance (responding)
- providing feedback (reinforcement)
- assessing performance (retrieval)
- enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).
Applying Gagne to Writing Instruction to Handheld Delivery
When one thinks of handheld devices, one often thinks of wireless communications. It’s exciting to consider how enhanced accessibility and interactivity, combined with the ability to communicate with voice, text, and images (with the built-in camera) can lead to exciting new highly-situated learning environments.
The challenge of the handheld is that the functionality is definitely there – but not the interactivity. In certain ways, one might as well be taking a class on a Nintendo Gameboy – it’s engaging and engrossing, but how does one really teach one to learn about the outside world?
More specifically, how are the elements – performance, feedback, and retention/transfer – effected?
The case of a first-year composition course brings out many of these challenges. The traditional elements aren’t there. Interaction with others is difficult, and any guidance will be self-directed.
1. gaining attention (reception) : Chunk content into different delivery modes.
a) launch with calendar
b) text-based objectives
c) attractive & high-contrast interface – clear navigation
d) mp3 files (downloadable to iPod players, too) – for listening in the rack
e) “reality television”-type videos – done w/digital camera
f) small chunks of text – relevant to the task / unit objectives
g) tasks encourage situated learning (writing about real situations)
2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
a) text-based objectives let people know clearly what the objectives are
b) clearly listed outcomes
c) work required
3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
a) storyboard the lessons so that they follow a narrative // unfolding adventure
b) building-block approach to writing – break up large concepts into buildable chunks (for example, in “taking a position” – pick a topic, do interviews, get information, write a one-paragraph draft, get more information, bulk up the paragraph, do “extreme revision”
4. presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
Same strategies as in “gaining attention” – the same information presented in four different modes)
5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
a) audio and video connect with the writing tasks. Students should think and take mental notes to organize a thesis and argument.
a) revision guides help students go back and clarify thesis, arguments, support, and approach
6. eliciting performance (responding)
a) response should be elicited by “study buddies” with each other
b) response comes in the form of feedback – a game to find the common flaws
c) build in a gaming element – rewards for finding patterns (positives and flaws) in their essays
d) audio file to simulate a human response
7. providing feedback (reinforcement)
a) reinforcement comes in the form of repetition
b) revisit the essay and revise
c) looking at it from different perspectives
8. assessing performance (retrieval)
a) some automated scoring of grammar reviews / exercises
b) self-assessment of essay
c) situate the essays in real-life situations: for example, write a review of a movie that others have seen, then have another read it and comment about whether or not they agreed or disagreed, and whether or not the argument was supported by evidence
9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
a) apply the strategies to each mode of writing
b) follow the same general format for each module
c) start feeling comfortable with the specifics so that generalizations can occur, and students apply meta-cognitive skills to each new writing occasion.
Perhaps the most important thing to keep in mind is that in developing an instructional strategy for a new technology, what matters most are the principles of design that focus on learning and usability. It is a philosophical subtly that should be kept in the forefront. If it is ignored, learners may enjoy playing with the new toy, but they probably won’t learn anything.
References
Gagne, R. (1962). Military training and principles of learning. American Psychologist, 17, 263-276.
Gagne, R. (1985). The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). New York : Holt, Rinehart & Winston .
Gagne, R. (1987). Instructional Technology Foundations. Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.
Gagne, R. & Driscoll, M. (1988). Essentials of Learning for Instruction (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Gagne, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th Ed.). Fort Worth , TX : HBJ College Publishers.
Relevant Web Sites :
The following web sites provide further information about Gagne and his work:
http://www.psy.pdx.edu/PsiCafe/KeyTheorists/Gagne.htm
http://www.ittheory.com/gagne1.htm
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