Motivation and Distance Learning: What We Know So Far
By Elaine Bontempi

Understanding what motivates learners has been a topic of much research over the past quarter of a century. So far, there have been some excellent theories on what motivates learners, including those formed by Keller, Maehr, Csikszentmihalyi, Deci & Ryan, Dweck, and Bandura. Although these theories suggest that there are many elements that influence learners such as gender, SES, peer influence, age, etc., these theories have focused on the traditional learner rather than the distance learner. This paper is an attempt to discuss the existing research on the topic, although more research needs to be conducted.
Much of the existing research on motivation and learners discusses factors which contribute to the development of the learners’ intrinsic motivation. In the event a student lacks motivation, several theories suggest ways to increase this through extrinsic reinforcement, learning goals, student expectations, etc. This paper reviews factors that influence learners’ motivational levels both going into distance programs as well as elements in the design which are present or lacking and that further influence motivation. Some influences include demographics of the distance learner, study conditions, support, semiotics and interface design, faculty barriers, organizational issues and course considerations.
Although distance learning has existed in one form or another for over one hundred years, it is mainly during the last twenty five years that it has become established as a teaching/learning mode of its own. Over the past century, the medium has changed from pencil and paper correspondence courses to real time Internet based courses. Distance learning is an excellent method of reaching the adult learner because it allows a high degree of flexibility to those who have competing responsibilities and priorities of work, family and school. However, distance education has its problems, including loss of student motivation and high attrition rates. While designers of distance education programs hope that all of the students who enroll in their programs are motivated, this quality should be considered a prerequisite for distant learners. The motivating forces that are usually present in traditional classrooms such as group pressure or a familiar learning situation and social factors, are often missing in the distance settings (Zvacek, 1991). Student motivation has a powerful effect on attrition rates, and motivators for adult distance learners are often different from those of traditional students. In order to determine possible solutions, one must first examine issues that influence the typical distance learner.

Demographics

In examining the research on motivation and distance learners, it is important to understand who the typical distance learner is, and how certain characteristics such as age, gender, occupation and prior levels of knowledge influence this population. Distance learning is student centered learning, thus knowing the characteristics and demographics of learners helps us to understand the potential barriers to motivation and learning. Students who enroll in distance learning courses do so for convenience (Galusha, 1997). They are either time bound by work, travel schedules, or location bound due to geographic or family responsibilities. Traditionally, distance learners are perceived as adults, providing education at the post secondary level. In a study by Kahl and Cropley (1992), it was noted that the majority of face to face learners are under 25 yrs old, whereas the majority of distance learners are between 25-34 years old. This is changing as new programs, such as the U.S. Federal government’s Star Schools Program, come into existence. This program, along with several others, serves the K-12 student population (Sherry, 1996). At the lower grade levels, distance learning usually takes the form of curriculum enrichment modules (Sherry, 1996). Furthermore, Matthews (1998) observed a new trend emerging in distance education: students already enrolled in regular classes who were eager to ease their schedules by taking courses online.
Other studies have shown that two-thirds of the distance learners (between the ages of 25-34) reported enrolling in distance courses with the goal of obtaining the diploma to which the course led (Kahl & Cropley, 1992). In contrast, approximately 55% of the face to face learners reported that they simply wanted to take part in seminars, carry out assignments etc. Thus, the face to face learners expected to graduate, although this was not the basic motivational factor. Instead, graduation was perceived as something that automatically happened as a result of attending the institution. In contrast, the distance learner studied in order to graduate, all the while realizing that graduation may not actually occur. Distance learners regarded their studies as a specific way of dealing with particular needs (especially keeping up with new developments and/or remedying deficits in their earlier education). Heinze (1983) went so far as to argue that many distance learners take up their studies as a way of coping with a personal crisis, especially at work. The course becomes a sort of therapy, and success in the course becomes a proof of competence and self worth.

Influences of Age:

Galusha (1997) pointed out that a 1984 survey of tele-course participants found that about 2/3 were women and half of the students were at least 30 years old. Over half had at least one dependent and about 2/3 were married. Eighty percent of these students were employed, and over half of these were working full time while pursuing their studies. Galusha (1997) also stated that more recent research confirms these earlier studies. Over seventy percent of recent graduates who studied by distance work full time.
Studies involving the age of distance learners indicate some motivational differences among young and older students. Percy and Withnall (192) noted that elderly students were motivated by enjoyment of learning and pleased with the flexibility of distance education. In addition, older students (those over 50) appear to have higher completion rates (Galusha, 1997). This makes sense in that older students probably have greater coping skills in dealing with the problems in distance learning, and fewer priorities (such as children) competing for their time. Yasin (1988) mentioned that older people appear to have a diverse range of learning objectives and that these vary with the kinds of subjects individuals pursue. Studies involving distance learners in Britain indicated that older students tended to take more classes in the humanities and social sciences, often because retirement offers the opportunity to continue with the study of long standing interests (Percy et al, 1992). Furthermore, elderly students who chose more artistic or creative pursuits explained their objectives in terms of the relaxation it provided, although other studies have shown that middle class older students wanted to understand and appreciate the creative process in general (Percy et al., 1992). Yasin (1988) reported a growth in the number of American elderly who enrolled in vocational courses in order to enhance their post retirement employment opportunities, and also noted that this same phenomenon had not been observed in Britain. This latter event may be due to cultural differences in values.
Another recent study by the European Older Students Research Group (1990) surveyed older students in four European countries, including the United Kingdom, Belgium, France and the Federal Republic of Germany. This research revealed similarities between the respondents in all four countries. The majority of participants chose Humanities as their principal subject of study, and the most common reason for continuing to study was “the need to keep their minds active and to achieve personal development.” Social objectives such as making new friends or finding a new identity after retirement had low ratings. Similarly, two studies of older students in the British Open University between 1982-1987 indicated that the most frequently mentioned reasons for studying were to make up for missed opportunities in the past, keep an active mind, and continue developing and earn a degree (Percy et al, 1992). In the same study, these older students mentioned concerns about memory and their ability keep up with the pace and organization of the study. In addition, poor health, disabilities and dislikes in travel might further motivate elderly students to participate in distance courses (Percy et al., 1992). Conversely, barriers to elderly students’ motivation may include limited prior educational experiences or negative self images including the perception that they are too old to learn (Percy et al, 1992).
Studies involving distance elements and kindergarten children found a novelty effect occurs with this age group and concluded that it was dependent upon the software being used (Bergin, Ford, and Hess, 1993). The novelty effect is an important motivational issue because it reflects potentially maladaptive changes in the direction, and persistence of the distance learner’s behavior over a period of time. Research indicates that students tended to “give novel media increased effort and attention, which can result in motivational effects and achievement gains that are temporary and unreliable” (Bergin et al., 1993).

Gender Influences:
Studies involving distance learners have identified some influences that gender plays on motivation. Bergin, Ford, & Hess (1993), found almost no gender differences in motivational or social behavior patterns involving kindergarten students involved in distance education. However, Hess and Miura (1985) found that by the time students reach middle school, there are already large differences in computer interest, computer self efficacy, actual computer use, and willingness to consider computer related careers. Other research suggests that males tend to have more positive attitudes toward the computer and display greater use under free choice (Bergin et al., 1993). Similarly, Kahl et al, (1992) stated that the majority of conventional students who are in education or in social sciences are female, but those who later go on to increase qualifications through distance learning are male. Other studies point out gender differences in distance learning populations. Galush (1997) indicated that the majority of students enrolled in distance courses are women. Other research by Matthews (1999) supports this finding. In her research, Matthews (1999) stated that distance learning mainly attracts women with children, and that sixty six percent of the adult distance education market is female, and eighty percent of them have children. Again, this would suggest competing interests of family/children, because women are predominantly the caregivers, taking care of both children and elderly parents.

Occupational Influences:
In general, the adult distance learner is employed full time, and has personal commitments, such as family, that complicate efforts in obtaining a further education. Studies by Galusha (1997) found that eighty percent of distance learners were employed and over half of these worked full time. Similarly, Kahl et al., (1992) found that distance learners tended to live in traditional households with a spouse and children. The majority of distance learners have already obtained job qualifications and occupations typically vary from housewives, retirees, military, and manual trades. In a study by Carr and Ledwith (1980), it was discovered that housewives had a lower attrition rate than the general distance learner. On the other hand, those who listed their occupation as a manual trade had a drop out rate fifty percent higher than the overall rate. This last phenomenon may be attributed to differences in values, suggested in Maher’s Personal Investment Theory (1983). Perhaps those employed in a manual trade do not see the long term benefits of furthering their education. In general, manual trades fail to benefit from advances in education, whereas those employed in white collar jobs may have opportunities for career advancements as their education increases. Peer influences may explain these differences. It is possible that those employed in manual trades have friends who are also involved in the same fields, and their friends do not place value on furthering education (this is similar to what happens among “at-risk” teens).

Prior Levels of Knowledge:
Another factor that seems to influence motivational levels in distance learners is prior levels of knowledge. Rekkedal (1983) noted that educational levels prior to enrollment in a distance course were related to persistence. Kahl et al. (1992), noted that one third of distance learners have had experience with adult education, but only ten percent of face to face learners have had the same exposure. This may be accounted for by the age differences that have been observed between traditional and distance learners.

Study Conditions:
Distance learners have been found to differ from face to face learners in several ways. First, they are generally more isolated, display lower levels of self confidence, have less opportunity to study, have less access to supportive structures such as library, advisors, tutors, and show an increased desire for structure in their learning material (Kahl et al., 1990). In addition, distance learners must demonstrate the ability to work independently. They must undertake their studies with virtually no supervision, be willing to seek assistance when needed, and be motivated to advance at an appropriate pace (Manzo, 1997).
Isolation becomes a major factor in the motivation of distance learners. Distance learners must cope with isolation from both the instructor and peers. A study by Kahl et al. (1992) showed that about one third of the distance learners complained that they wanted to work in groups with other people, but were unable to make contacts necessary to do so. Kahl et al., (1992) also noted that half of distance learners indicated that they were unable to discuss courses with anyone. Students enrolled in distance courses often lack proper feedback, which also often leads to a decline in motivation levels. Isolation has been attributed to high attrition rates among many distance learners, and appears to be especially true for many correspondence type courses, where attrition rates can be in excess of 70% (Schieman and Jones, 1993). Research indicates that the psychological consequences of isolation are that distance learners have clearer expectations of their studies, and have decreased levels of confidence about their ability to complete their studies. The decreased level of self confidence leads students to a desire to structure and organize their learning. Related to the issue of structure is learner control. Many distance learners, when interviewed, reported that the problem of low learner control was a very real one. This often led to a sense of alienation and frustration, which in turn, often resulted in failure and/or drop out ( Schieman et al, 1993).
Finally, research indicates that distance learners are further disadvantaged by problems of access to information and support. Poor access to libraries, student advisors, tutors, financial aid, and technical support all influence motivation levels of the student. Without out proper support, students often develop a sense of learned helplessness which in turn, acts as a de-motivator.

Semiotics/Interface Design
In addition to demographic characteristics which either contribute to or subtract from distance learners’ motivaitonal levels, there are also influences inherent in the design of the instruction itself. There are many instructional design issues which may have an effect upon students’ motivation ( a paper in itself), but design interface plays an important role as well. Stoney and Wild (1998) suggest that user interface in instructional multimedia is very important, and if it is not designed well, students will not be intrinsically motivated to make use of the product or use it as a learning tool. Stoney et al., (1998) further contend that design interfaces that motivate learners are “realistic, easy to use, challenging and engaging,” and that they have some of the same elements of a game.
Another factor to consider in computer interface design is the use of color, and how it effects learners’ motivation. Color can have a major impact on the motivation of a learner, in either a positive or negative way. If used properly, color is potentially a powerful tool to convey information, and aid user memory. It also allows ideas to be communicated more quickly. On the other hand, if used improperly, it can jeopardize the functionality of the display system. Wright, Mosser-Wooley, and Wooley (2000) asserted that color can aid in the development of workable, efficient mental models if the guidelines are simplicity, consistency, clarity, and language of color.

Discussion
Although more research is needed in the field of distance learning and motivation, existing studies point to several factors that influence the motivation levels of distance learners. First, it seems that motivation is a pre-requisite of distance learning because of the many barriers distance learners encounter. Barriers appear to be learning conditions such as geographical distance, isolation from instructor and peers, lack of access to support such as libraries, technical assistance, financial aid, tutors and academic advisors. Other factors that may influence the motivation of distance learners include age, gender, occupation, prior levels of knowledge, and design interface. These factors should all be considered when designing distance learning programs, and the instruction should include elements that address and solve these issues. For example, because we know from research that the lack of feedback and assistance often results in lower levels of self efficacy, distance programs should be presented in a non threatening way, and should be designed so that they build up learners’ self confidence. This can be accomplished by providing many opportunities for small accomplishments, which should increase the learners’ expectations of success. Material should be presented in a highly organized, logical and comprehensive way and allow self determination. In addition, students should have access to technical support, libraries, tutors, academic advisors and financial aid, just as traditional learners do.

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